Methods for Water Treatment

Methods for Water Treatment 1.12.2 Effect of chlorination of water Chlorine is toxic not only for microorganisms, but for human being also. For humans, chlorine is an irritation to the nasal passages eye, and respiratory system. Chlorine gas must be cautiously handled because it may cause severe health problem. Although, chlorine gas is also the low rate form of chlorine for water treatment, It makes use choice in spite of the health problem. In drinking water, the concentration of chlorine is usually very low and is thus not a concern in acute exposure. More of a concern is the long term risk of cancer due to chronic exposing to chlorinated water. This is mainly due to the halo alkanes and other products and chlorinated products. These are carcinogenic and have been the substance of concern in chlorinated drinking water. Chlorinated water has been related with increased risk of bladder, colon and rectal cancer. In the case of bladder cancer, the risk may be doubled. Chlorination is a very popular method of water disinfection that has been used from several years. It has proved to be efficient for destroying bacteria and viruses, but not for some carcinogenic disinfection by-product, many communities have become hesitant in the continuation of this process. Although chlorination does have some disadvantages, it continues to be the most conventional, useful, and consistent method of water disinfection. 1.13 Oxidation by potassium permanganate Most treatment plants, uses potassium permanganate for the oxidation and subsequent removal of iron, follow the chemical addition with manganese greensand filtration. Manganese treated greensand can exchange electrons and therefore oxidizes iron and manganese to their insoluble, filterable states [[1][2]]. When the filter is completely regenerated the excess KMnO4 will break through the filter bed leaving a pink color in the water. The greensand filter bed is usually capped with anthracite to first remove insoluble compounds, which helps prevent the filter from becoming clogged. Most filters are equipped with an air wash system to enhance the greens and backwashing process. Major disadvantages to the use of the potassium permanganate – greens and filtration process for iron removal include high chemical costs and filter bed deterioration when the pH falls below 7.0. In some treatment plants, KMnO4 is used to oxidize iron and manganese without greensand filtration[[3]]and analytical chemistry [[4]] and also as a disinfectant. Among the six oxidation states of manganese from +2 to +7, permanganate, Mn(VII) is the most pervasive oxidation state in acid, with reduction potentials of [[5]]Oxidation by permanganate finds extensive application in organic synthesis [[6]].The manganese c hemistry involved in these multistep redox reactions is an important source of information as the manganese intermediates are relatively easy to identify when they have sufficiently long lifetimes, and oxidation states of the intermediates permit useful conclusions as to the possible reaction mechanisms, including the nature of intermediates. In acidic medium it exists in the different forms: HMnO4, H2MnO+4, HMnO3 and Mn2O7. The thesis comprises seven chapters including the general introduction about chemical kinetics as follows. 1.  General Introduction This chapter introduces about the kinetics, mechanisms, disinfection and catalysis of reactions in general. PART I Uncatalyzed reactions 2. Transformation of Levofloxacin during Water treatment with chlorine: Kinetics, Mechanism and Pathways Kinetics and mechanism of removal of fluoroquinolone antibacterial levofloxacin (LFC) by free available chlorine (FAC) during water chlorination processes was investigated for the first time between the pH values 4.2 and 8.5. The pH dependent second order rate constants were found to decrease with increase in pH. (e.g. Apparent second order rate constant; k†app = 20 dm3 mol-1 s-1 at pH 4.2 and k†app = 1 dm3 mol-1 s-1 at pH 8.5 and at 25 oC). The products of the reaction were determined by Liquid chromatography and high resolution mass spectrometry. There are two plausible pathways for the LFC chlorination. The major channel is electrophilic halodecarboxylation of quinolone moiety in which, HOCl reacts at tertiary N(4) amine to form a reactive chlorammonium intermediate (R3N(4)Cl+) that can catalytically halogenate LFC and the minor channel is chlorination at piperazinyl moiety in which the HOCl reacts at tertiary N(4) amine to form a reactive chlorammonium intermediate (R 3N(4)Cl+) followed by intermediate degradation both at piperazinyl and quinolone moiety with successive chlorination. The effect of temperature on the rate of the reaction was studied at four different temperatures and rate constants were found to increase with increase in temperature and the thermodynamic activation parameters Ea, ΔH#, ΔS# and ΔG# were evaluated for the reaction and discussed. 3. Transformation of linezolid during water treatment with chlorine: A kinetic study The experimental studies on transformation of emerging contaminant linezolid during water chlorination process have been carried out using UV-Visible spectrometer. The pseudo-first order rate constants of linezolid reaction with free available chlorine (FAC) at 5.0 to 8.8 pH have been determined. The second order rate constants are found to decrease with increase in pH (e.g. apparent second rate constant; k†app=2.88 dm3 mol-1s-1 at pH 5.0 and k†app = 0.076 dm3 mol-1 s-1 at pH 8.8 at 298K). Monochlorinated reaction product has been identified by LC/ESI/MS spectra under the experimental conditions. A mechanism involving electrophilic halogenation is proposed based on the kinetic data and LC/ESI/MS spectra. The effect of temperature on the rate of the reaction has been studied at four different temperatures. It is observed that rate constants increase with the increase in temperature and the thermodynamic activation parameters Ea, ΔH#, ΔS# and ΔG# are evaluated for the reaction and discussed. The product of the reaction between linezolid and FAC retains the antibacterial activity. The geometry optimization of the reactants and the products has been done using dispersion corrected density functional (DFT-D) method. All the DFT calculations are accomplished using the TurboMole-5.10 package. 4. Transformation of antibacterial agent lomefloxacin by alkaline permanganate: Kinetics and Mechanism The kinetic and mechanistic investigation of oxidation of emerging contaminant Lomefloxacin (LMF) by alkaline permanganate was carried out spectrophtometrically. The oxidation product 7-amino-1-ethyl-6,8-difluoro-4-oxo-quinoline-3-carboxylic acid was identified by Agilent 6130 Series Quadrupole LC/MS. The stoichiometry was found to be 1:2, that is, 1 mol of lomefloxacin reacted with 2 mol manganese (VII). Orders with respect to [LMF] and [OH] were found to be fractional and less that one. The oxidation reaction proceeds via an alkali-permanganate species, that forms a complex with lomefloxacin and the complex then decomposes to give the product. The rate of reaction was found to decrease with decrease in the dielectric constant. The effects of initially added products and ionic strength have also been investigated. The kinetics of the reaction was also studied at four different temperatures and the thermodynamic activation parameters for the reaction were evaluated and discussed. The geometry optimization of reactants and activated complex were carried out using density functional theory (DFT). The DFT calculations were accomplished with the TURBOMOLE program package (Version-6.4). The activation energy was found to be ~21 kJ/mol at RI-BP86.def 2-TZVPP level of theory. PART II CATALYSED REACTIONS 5. Silver (I) catalyzed and uncatalyzed oxidation of levofloxacin with aqueous chlorine: A comparative kinetic and mechanistic approach The kinetics and mechanism of the Ag (I) ion catalyzed reaction of levofloxacin (LFC) by free available chlorine (FAC) during water chlorination processes was investigated for the first time between the pH values 4.2 and 8.2. The pH dependent second order rate constants were found to decrease with increase in pH. (e.g. Apparent second order rate constant for Ag (I) catalyzed reaction, k†app = 114.40 dm-3 mol-1 sec-1 at pH 4.2 and k† app. = 8.72 dm-3mol-1 sec-1 at pH 8.2 and at 25 ±0.2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™). The reaction rates revealed that Ag (I) catalyzed reaction was about six-fold faster than the uncatalyzed reaction. The products of the reaction were determined by Liquid chromatography and high resolution mass spectrometry. The reaction proceeds via formation of intermediate complex between Ag (I) ion and levofloxacin, then HOCl reacts with the complex to form chlorinated product. The effect of catalyst, effect of initially added product, effect dielectric constant and effect ionic strength on the rate of reaction was also studied. The effect of temperature on the rate of the reaction was studied at four different temperatures and rate constants were found to increase with increase in temperature and the thermodynamic activation parameters Ea, ΔH#, ΔS# and ΔG# were evaluated for the reaction and discussed. 6. Ag (I) catalyzed chlorination of linezolid during water treatment: Kinetics, mechanism The kinetics and mechanism of the Ag (I) ion catalyzed reaction of linezolid (LNZ) by free available chlorine (FAC) during water chlorination processes was investigated for the first time between the pH values 4.0 and 9.0. The pseudo-first order rate constants of linezolid reaction with free available chlorine (FAC) at 4.0 to 9.0 pH have been determined. The pH dependent second order rate constants were found to decrease with increase in pH. Apparent second order rate constant for uncatalyzed reaction, e.g. k†app = 8.15 dm-3 mol-1 sec-1 at pH 4.0 and k† app. = 0.076 dm-3mol-1 sec-1 at pH 9.0 and at 25 ±0.2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ and for Ag (I) catalyzed reaction total apparent second order rate constant, e.g. k†app = 51.50 dm-3 mol-1 sec-1 at pH 4.0 and k† app. = 1.03 dm-3mol-1 sec-1 at pH 9.0 and at 25 ±0.2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™. The reaction rates revealed that Ag (I) catalyzed reaction was about five to ten-fold faster than the uncatalyzed reaction. Monochlorinate d reaction product has been identified by LC/ESI/MS spectra under the experimental conditions. A mechanism involving electrophilic halogenation is proposed based on the kinetic data and LC/ESI/MS spectra. The reaction rates revealed that Ag (I) catalyzed reaction was about ten-fold faster than the uncatalyzed reaction.The reaction proceeds via formation of intermediate complex between Ag (I) ion and linezolid, then HOCl reacts with the complex to form chlorinated product. The effect of temperature on the rate of the reaction has been studied at four different temperatures. It is observed that rate constants increase with the increase in temperature and the thermodynamic activation parameters Ea, ΔH#, ΔS# and ΔG# are evaluated for the reaction and discussed. The effect of catalyst, effect of initially added product, effect dielectric constant and effect ionic strength on the rate of reaction. The product of the reaction between linezolid and FAC retains the antibacterial activity. 7. Transformation of linezolid during water treatment with permanganate: Kinetics, mechanism and Pd (II) catalysis The uncatalyzed and Pd (II) catalyzed transformation of Linezolid (LNZ) with permanganate in acidic medium was carried out between the pH values 3.0 and 6.0. The pH dependent second order rate constants were found to decrease with increase in pH. Apparent second order rate constant for uncatalyzed reaction, e.g. k†app = 6.32 dm-3 mol-1 sec-1 at pH 3.0 and k† app. = 2.64 dm-3mol-1 sec-1 at pH 6.0 and at 25 ±0.2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ and for Pd (II) catalyzed reaction total apparent second order rate constant, e.g. k†app = 75.5 dm-3 mol-1 sec-1 at pH 3.0 and k† app. = 45.66 dm-3mol-1 sec-1 at pH 6.0 and at 25 ±0.2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™. The reaction rates revealed that Pd (II) catalyzed reaction was about ten-fold faster than the uncatalyzed reaction. The products of the reaction were determined by Liquid chromatography and high resolution mass spectrometry. The reaction proceeds via formation of complex between Pd (II) and linezolid, then complex reacts with acidic p ermanganate to form intermediate compound, which then form oxidized products. The effect of catalyst, effect of initially added product, effect dielectric constant and effect ionic strength on the rate of reaction were also studied. The effect of temperature on the rate of the reaction was studied at four different temperatures and rate constants were found to increase with increase in temperature and the thermodynamic activation parameters Ea, ΔH#, ΔS# and ΔG# were evaluated for the reaction and discussed. References [1]. w. Stumm, and J.J. Morgan, Aquatic Chemistry. Wiley Interscience, New York, 1967. [2]. J. Hoigne, H. Bader, W.R. Haag and J. Staehelin, Rate Constants of Reactions of Ozone with Organic and Inorganic Compounds in water III, Water Res., Vol. 19(8), 1985, pp.993. [3]. L.D. Benefield, J.F. Judkins and B.L. Weand , Iron and Manganese Removal, from Process Chemistry for water and wastewater Treatment, ed. J.M. Chege, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood CliffS, N.J.,1982. [4]. G.A. Hiremath, P.L.Timmanagoudar and S. T. Nandibewoor, Kinetics of oxidation of thallium (I) by permanganate in aqueous hydrochloric acid medium using stopped flow technique. Transit. Met. Chem. Vol.21, 1996, pp. 560–568. [5]. M.C. Day and J.Selbin, Theoretical Inorganic Chemistry, Reinhold, New York, 1964,  pp. 226–233. [6]. P. Caron, R.W. Dugger, J.A.Ruggeri and D.H.Brown Ripin, Large scale oxidations in the pharmaceutical industry. Chem. Rev. Vol.106, 2006, pp. 2943–2989.

Emergency Department Poc Immunoassay Testing Essay

Introduction Cardiovascular disease is a substantial concern and has emerged as one of the leading health issues. In examining cardiovascular disease, its incidence is astounding. Each year approximately one million men and women die, averaging one death every thirty three seconds (Heart, 2013).The death rate for cardiovascular issues such as myocardial infarction and CHF claim more lives than cancer and Aids combined. Heart disease will be the number one cause of death by the year 2020 worldwide (Heart, 2013). Notably heart disease is a significant health problem that not only costs lives but is a significant economic burden with costs related to doctors’ visits, medications, rehabilitation and additional contributors such as loss of work and patient rehabilitations. It is estimated at approximately 485 billion dollars annually can be associated to the treatment of heart related issues such as heart attack and CHF, early diagnosis is imperative (Heart,2013). The intention of this proposal is to introduce the function of Point of care (POC) testing in the Emergency Department for immunoassay levels and educate on the benefits of early detection of Troponin and Brain naturietic peptide levels which are cardiovascular disease markers. This proposal outlines the purpose, targeted population, costs, and benefits as well as the process of evaluation. Furthermore, acquiring approval of the Emergency Department manager as well as the director is the intention of this proposal and it is hoped that the program once approved can be launched in June of 2015. Purpose of the Program The purpose of the program is to promote is to acquire funding for the purchase of an immunoassay point of care testing machine in the Emergency Department(ED). Heart disease effects millions of people worldwide, often patients present to the Emergency Department in need of testing for heart related issues. Often times the chest pain and symptoms people are experiencing are benign, in utilizing the POC testing patients  people can be quickly assessed for cardiac markers and if negative will result unnecessary precautionary medication utilization, decrease in unnecessary overnight observation, shortened length of stay in the ED as well as reduction in patient anxiety waiting for lengthy lab results (Noyan, 2013). Target Population The target population includes men and women greater than age 18. Although heart related issues such as cardiovascular disease and CHF most commonly affect persons greater than 65 and estimated 1% of the population can be stricken with disease as early as age 18. Often times drugs may be a factor as well as genetics (Heart, 2013). It is imperative all persons presenting to the ER with chest pain or other heart related issues be cleared for any possible life threating cardiac events. There are an estimated 250,000 sudden cardiac deaths occurring each year in the united states, that translates into 680 per day, half of this is in persons younger than 65 and in addition half of these have no prior warning symptoms (Heart,2013). Looking at these statistics it is imperative that having POC testing to rule out benign conditions and reserve resources for true life threating cardiac issues. Costs Once the purchase of the device is made its annual costs are slim. With the cost of health care rising and less insurance reimbursement saving money for the hospital is vital. The purchase price for the POC device is approximately 6,000 dollars which based on a study translated into approximately 9.00 to per person to perform the test which is very inexpensive( Mainor,2002). Benefits Benefits of this program is receiving funding for the purchase of the POC testing equipment, resulting in the ability to rapidly evaluate patients presenting with cardiovascular symptoms, such as suspected acute myocardial infarction or heart failure. Utilizing POC testing into an emergency department results in quicker diagnosis, treatment, improved patient outcomes, improves ER flow through by weeding out non acute patients, decreases unnecessary use of resources such as medication and  hospital admissions. Evaluation In order to assess if this program will be successful we can survey a control group to see if the statements that are made are accurate. In surveying 100 patients that present with cardiovascular symptoms such as chest pain. POC testing can be completed to see how many of the 100 patients were non acute chest pain resulting in the reduction of resources and admissions. In addition, research from other facilities is widely available and research has already been completed ensure the success of this program. Conclusion POC testing is an easy, quick intervention that leads to quicker diagnosis and the savings of vital resources need for life threatening emergencies. This department needs to have this machine, the improvement of ER flow by reducing non acute patient wait times would be only one of many invaluable reasons to approve and fund this program. References: Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics–2013. (2013). Journal of the American Heart Association, 127(6), 1-245. Mainor, B., Hardwick, W., & King, W. (January,2002). Evaluation of a Portable Clinical Analyzer in the Pediatric Emergency Department: Analysis of Cost and Turnaround Time. Southern Medical Journal, 95(6), 4-5. Retrieved October 6, 2014. Noyan, T., Gozlukaya, O., & Cankaya, S. (2013). The Evaluation of Cardiac TroponinI Assays Measured Radiometer AQT90 Flex and ReLIA Analyzers. Journal of Medicine and Medical Research, 1(4), 16-22.

A Contemporary Take on The Blithedale Romance

Four individuals get together with thoughts on what an ideal society should be in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Blithedale Romance. † Blithedale was a modern Arcadia founded by Charles Fourier which was eventually destroyed by the behavior of individuals who are only interested for themselves. These said members are the very four individuals who are the main characters in the novel.These are Hollingsworth, a philanthropist and misogynist who wants to make Blithedale a colony for the reformation of criminals, Zenobia, an outspoken and opinionated feminist, Priscilla, a seamstress from the city and Miles Coverdale, the poet who is also the narrator in the story. Throughout spring and summer, Hollingsworth, Zenobia, Priscilla and Coverdale formed an intense friendship with one another. Just like the weather, this bond disintegrates the exact moment autumn comes. The book ends tragically. Coverdale is an unreliable narrator.It was as if his manner of speaking represents s pirituality to the masses who are already secular. This makes him appear someone who tries to popularize his beliefs. He is also a voyeur because he avoids interaction with those around him. He also doesn’t like to be seen. Since he is the narrator, it seems as if he has the power. Truth is, his personality influences how the story is told. The politics, personal liberation and communal utopia he has in his head still depends on how the three other characters take it. Zenobia is the representation of the eternal feminine, to the delight of modern-day feminists.The text describes her as â€Å"earthy, maternal, natural, sensual, domestic, brilliant, loving and demanding. † Nonetheless, Zenobia is complicated and she represents the varying feminist qualities just as she mirrors the â€Å"materiality of the world† and her â€Å"resistance to desire. † It seems as if Zenobia was already the image of the feminist politics. On the other hand, Hollingsworth is of ten perceived as the American sterotype. He intends to â€Å"convert the heathen. † This is his way to redeem the fallen. He has projects that are philanthropic by nature. It masks his â€Å"will to power.† Hollingsworth is the typical white and male of today. It also seems that throughout the text, he is so masculine. Each trait he has reflects traditional masculinity. Finally, there is Priscilla. She is the exact opposite of Zenobia. She is passive, innocent, vulnerable and can easily be manipulated. She suffers from the control of the men in her life. However, in the book as written by Hawthorne, it will seem that Priscilla overpowers Zenobia. In the society that they are in, Zenobia’s strong feminist views do not coincide with the traditional norms.†The Blithedale Romance† may be a classic but it is still relevant especially during political seasons. With the background check on the time Hawthorne wrote this, the Transcendentalists, Utopian Movem ent, Unitarians and Universalists still remain in the political ideologies of today. Just like modern Americans, the characters in the story are unsatisfied with what the United States is now. They believe that they are still living in the â€Å"sinfulness of man. † They intend to make heaven here on earth. In the book, they called their utopia â€Å"Happy Valley.† We see politicians striving for the same goal today. Each one of them have their own logos. In contemporary America, politicians always trying to fix things that do not need fixing. They believe they can ignore human nature.. It is interesting to point that the ideologies represented in the book didn’t work. It is pretty much a prediction because these movements – Socialism, Misogyny, Feminism – also do not work today. The part where Zenobia seems to be uncontrolled is an allusion to the power of the feminist movement. If you think about it, women want to be heard.They have strong convic tions and if the reader will use Zenobia as the symbol of the feminist movement, he can conclude that she bowed down to Hollingsworth, who represents the traditional male. It is unfortunate that despite women’s determination to be heard, the masculine driven society we live in today results to an â€Å"abrupt and dramatic suicide† of the feminist’s beliefs. 1 Hawthorne, during his time, was known to be a romance novelist. This work is different from his previous masterpieces simply because of its relative realism.He made sure that the novel deals with social events that occur in an everyday fashion. There is also romance in extraordinary events. The novel manages to analyze the characters through the historical and social forces. Take this for example. A main complication in the novel is the conflict between the individual and the community. There is a subjectivity on the self because the focus is on will and personal freedom. Early on, it has been said that the town did not succeed because of the self-interest of the four characters.That is why as much as the characters offer ethical benefit in order for the other person to do well, the individualism appears to be self detemination. The pursuit of one’s personal gain only complicates the matter even more. 2 Another conflict is Hollingsworth’s take on spirituality. It seems that it is so intangible that it needs public reckoning but most individuals in Blithedale wish to see this spiritual belief in evidence which the four characters cannot explain. Clearly, â€Å"The Blithedale Romance† is a romantic perception of something so real such as a society.As much as one wishes to strive for utopia, the human nature of selfishness, self-interest and self-again will always prevent this from happening. Another concern is the different mindsets of people, as seen among the four characters in â€Å"The Blithedale Romance. † This only comes to show that there will always b e misunderstanding among us. 1 Hoeltje, Hubert H. Inward Sky: The Heart and Mind of Nathaniel Hawthorne, page 313, Duke University Press, 1962 2 Craig White, â€Å"A Utopia of Spheres and Sympathies†, Utopian Studies, 1998.

Health and Social Care A Plan for Implementing the Program of Activities - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 1 Words: 290 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2019/10/10 Did you like this example? The underlying agenda behind the program is to implement a health and wellness plan within the community. There are several significant facets to the program. These include enhancement of primary health care provision, promotion of mental wellness through reduction of substance abuse, improvement of environmental health, and harnessing of information technology to enhance the community’s ability to access health care services (Frieden, 2014 p.18). This program and the entrenched activities have necessitated the development of a plan, which is as laid down below. Primary health care provision The project to achieve this facet of the program will take into consideration the following aspects: †¢ Establishing a comprehensive understanding of primary health care within the community †¢ Mapping out of available primary care services within the community †¢ Improving coordination between physicians and health institutions within the community (Norton, 2014 p.538) Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Health and Social Care: A Plan for Implementing the Program of Activities" essay for you Create order Promotion of mental wellness The plan of implementation under this facet of the program will entail the following activities: †¢ Reaching out to reduce drug abuse in the community †¢ Facilitating partnerships and collaborations among and between institutions that have been engaged in mental wellness within the locale (Norton, 2014 p.540) Promotion of environmental health For the program to produce the anticipated results, implementation will involve the following courses of action: †¢ Encouraging and training community members to champion habits that enhance safe and healthy indoor and outdoor environments (Eldredge et al., 2016 p.68) †¢ Partnering with environmental health officers within the community to help formulate guidelines that can assist the community to foster a healthier environment (Norton, 2014 p.537). Harnessing information and technology This final stage will encapsulate the following courses of action towards implementation: †¢ Carrying out a scan of the community’s environment to determine the available and most appropriate technological platforms that can help improve health (Frieden, 2014 p.20).